Nanoparticles (NPs), owing to their unique physical, chemical, and biological properties such as controllable size, tunable surface properties, and excellent biocompatibility, have been widely utilized in various fields including cosmetics, food packaging, energy production, and biosensing. Upon release into the environment and subsequent exposure to biological organisms via respiration, ingestion, or dermal penetration, NPs rapidly acquire a protein corona (PC) upon encountering biological fluids.
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