The thioredoxin (Trx) system is the major protein disulfide reductase in cells and comprises Trx, Trx reductase (TrxR), and NADPH. Trx systems are ubiquitous and are critical for cell viability, proliferation, activation of transcription factors, and control of intracellular redox states. The activity of the Trx system has been reported to be disrupted in various physiological disorders such as HIV infection, Alzheimer